Freshman Composition I
First-Year College-Level Writing

Rhetorical Situation

When you hear the word "rhetoric," what do you think of? Many people have a negative reaction to the word. They picture politicians saying whatever necessary to get elected. However, rhetoric means more than that.

Rhetoric is actually the science or art of language. Therefore, when we think of the "rhetorical situation," we mean the where, when, how, and why surrounding communication. The rhetorical situation, then, refers to the purpose, audience, genre, stance, and design.

Purpose & Audience

paste_image1.png When you signed up for this class (or any other class), you had a purpose for taking the class: either personal or professional, etc. When talking to different people about why you're taking classes, you may have explained it in different ways to different people...you may have included the same message but used different phrases, etc., depending on the audience. This is similar in writing. Writing has different purposes and it changes based on the audience. 

There are several general purposes for writing, such writing to inform (newspaper articles & instruction booklets), persuade (editorials, campaign flyers, etc.) and to entertain (novels, scripts, etc.).  Additionally, people often write to express themselves like in journals or letters, etc.  For this class, you will be writing to inform and persuade readers. 

Audience

Just like the audience in a theatre, the audience in writing refers to the people you expect to read your writing. The audience is an important consideration—in all types of communication. Think about the different ways you communicate with your family and friends and how different movies attract different audiences. Would you take a 6-year-old to see a rated R movie? Probably not. Think about how you talk to your friends or family. Would this always be appropriate in a professional setting like during a job interview? Probably not. This is why the audience is important to consider. The audience dictates everything in writing: the writing style, the genre you choose to use, the way in which you present your ideas, and the medium you choose (a blog, an essay, a business proposal, a scientific report, etc.).

It is also important to consider how much your audience knows about a topic. You don't want to assume your audience knows everything, yet, you do not want to treat your audience as if they know nothing either. Therefore, it is important to achieve a balance. In general, for this class, think of your audience as having a high school education and familiar with general topics. This means that in specific fields, some terms may need to be defined. You can also assume an unbiased audience; that is, your readers neither agree nor disagree with you before reading your essay. This is different for a controversial topic, however. For a controversial topic, assume that the audience is hostile and against your opinion. In this way, you want to gently persuade them of your stance.

Often the audience dictates the purpose, and the purpose may also dictate the audience. This is important to understand for all writing. Because this is a college class, your audience is often understood as your classmates, although your purpose may be defined differently depending on the different assignments or courses. The combination of the two define the genre, the stance, the design, the writing style, organization, and tone. Academic writing has specific expectations (explained throughout the course), and it's important to understand these expectations in order to succeed in this class and all college classes.

Style & Grammatical Concerns

Now that you understand the importance of audience, it is important to understand the difference between formal and informal language. Informal language we use on a daily basis: on Facebook, texting, talking to friends, even talking in a comfortable classroom. However, college is different. In college, you are expected to know how to speak and write formally using academic language. This can be difficult if you're not used to it. Therefore, the following general rules will help.

FSE (Formal Standard English)

paste_image2.png FSE is a mode of writing that contains a formal tone. Think of it as a formal dinner...you wouldn't lick your knife while eating in front of the Queen of England. Just like at the formal dinner table, rules and etiquette govern what you do and do not do in writing. You use formal language when speaking or writing to a potential employer, the college president, or on a scholarship application. This is the same type of language expected in academic and business writing. 

FSE includes the following considerations:

o You can set your grammar check to catch these.  In your word processing program, set your grammar checker to search for style in addition to grammar. You can view what is included in the style check by clicking on "settings" and viewing the checked items. You can make other changes that include using a comma before 'and' and checking for clichés and fragments.

 

o  Although these are useful when communicating with your friends, they are informal and are not specific enough for complete descriptions. They also do not always hold true meaning.  Think of the phrase "it takes my breath away." Can that really happen? You may have a faster heart rate and you may hold your breath for a moment during a stressful or exciting moment, but nothing can reach in your throat and grab your breath—it is intangible. The phrase is also overused. Instead of using clichés, think about what you really mean and use specific details to describe what you really think. 

o  Another form of second person is the command form. For example, sentences that do not have a direct subject are written in command form (e.g. "Close your eyes and imagine your favorite spot." This command form should also be avoided. You do not want to tell your reader what to do.

o  If you have difficulty using punctuation, apostrophes, and other mechanical issues, then I suggest that you study the Purdue Online Writing Lab and complete as many practice activities as you can throughout the course.

o  Every day we use abbreviations in our speech and in our personal writing; however, in formal writing it's important to write these words out for clear communication.  Some examples include info (information), net (Internet), and 'til (till is not an abbreviation, but people often use it instead of 'til—avoid both--spell out until). Watch for other common abbreviations and write them out.

really, a lot, cool, so, you, your (etc.), very, get, way, much, sort of, kind of, and other non-descript words.  These words are too informal to be used in a college essay.  You could use your thesaurus on your computer to replace them—make sure, however, that you pick a word you understand rather than choosing a word that looks impressive.  

Semi-formal tone generally allows for 1st person and contractions, but the other components of FSE still apply.

In general, remember your audience.  You are writing to an authority figure, and your language should represent this audience.  You may have difficulty understanding why this is necessary, but think about your future and how some day you may be asked to write or speak to an important client or give a presentation to your boss.  If the only language you know is informal, then the presentation or report may not go over very well in that environment.  Learning how to use formal language now will help you cope in such a situation and in the working environment in your future.

Point of View

When writing, we always write from 1 of 3 points of view:  1st person, 2nd person, or 3rd person. The purpose and audience dictates the point of view for your writing. In personal writing, writers use "I" often, which is 1st person.  In instructional writing, such as these lecture notes, 2nd person is often used (you). Second person is also used in informal speaking and in advertisements. In formal writing, 3rd person is often used (they, him, her).  This point of view refers specifically to certain sets of pronouns listed below.  The table below demonstrates the different points of view. 

 

  1st person

*2nd person (avoid)

3rd person

Subjective

I, we

you

he, she, it, they

Objective

me, us

you

him, her, it, them

Possessive

my, mine, our(s)

your(s)

his, hers, its, their(s)

Be particularly wary of 1st person, plural pronouns (we, us, our). They should only be used when the group of people being discussed is clearly defined (particularly as to whether or not the reader is supposed to be a part of that group). 

The Writing Process

Writing is a learned skill. Just like learning a sport, or any other skill, a person does not start writing and achieve a perfect draft on the first try. For a successful essay, a process needs to be followed. The process varies for different people, but generally it follows a similar pattern: planning, drafting, organizing, revising, & editing. Often these steps are repeated within the process. When students fail to follow these steps, writing is often disjointed and disorganized. I highly recommend following this process.

Prewriting

paste_image3.jpg Prewriting is where you begin forming your ideas and deciding what you're going to write about. There are several techniques for this stage--including clustering, listing, or free writing. I tend to refer to this stage as "dumping" where you dump all of your thoughts and ideas on a page just to start the creative thought processes flowing. Different textbooks use different terms, such as "collecting" or "planning." No matter its name, the result is the same: this first step helps you start writing.

Prewriting has two real purposes:

1)  To help writers generate ideas. When prewriting, you should not concern yourself with grammar, punctuation, or quality of ideas.  You should simply write down all ideas that come into your head. Similarly, it does not matter which form of prewriting you choose to do. You can cluster, list, free write, etc. or prewrite with any combination of methods. Just don't skip this step...it tends to be the most useful.

2)  The second purpose of prewriting is to arrive at and possibly organize a topic for your paper. Although this is called "prewriting," it can be circular and done at any time of the writing process.

* It is always clear when students skip the prewriting process because the essays they write are either unfocused or underdeveloped, so be certain to complete this process.

The Writing Process (Continued)

Drafting

paste_image4.png This is the stage when you actually do your writing. You put your ideas down, attempt to stick to your topic while also narrowing it down and developing a direction. Don't worry if you find you have to change your thesis and topic sentences at this point—the drafting stage is all about change. 

This is also the stage when you begin to shape your essay. You narrow your topic, figure out your initial focus, and organize the essay. Some people like to begin this stage with an outline so they know where they're going and it helps them stay focused. On the other hand, some people like to just start writing and eventually they figure out where they're going and what their focus is in the essay. In any case, in drafting, determine your thesis, essay map, and topic sentence. You may need to revisit this step often as your thesis and topic sentences change. Nothing in the writing process is ever set in stone! Find what works best for you.

The Writing Process (Continued)

Organizing

paste_image5.png This is the stage where you have a solid topic and support for the topic. Now, you determine the order of your points and what examples you want to include and where. This is the stage where your essay begins to take shape and actually looks like an essay. Again, expect to go through this stage several times before you get to the next stage. (The textbook considers this step as part of drafting. It doesn't matter where you do this--as long as it gets done.) This is the point in which you will need to submit an outline for your essay. If you have not gone through the previous steps, creating an outline will be frustrating and difficult. Therefore, when you submit your outline for grading, it should not be the first time you have begun working on your essay.

See the section on Organizing the Essay for specific recommendations on organizing a typical academic essay.

 

 

 

The Writing Process (Continued)

Revising 

paste_image6.png Think of the word "revise." Re means " again," while vise means vision. You are literally "re-visioning" the essay: looking at it with fresh eyes. Some people like to let the essay sit a few hours—or even a few days—before getting to this stage. Examine the organization: does it work? Examine the thesis: is it strong? Examine the topic sentences: do they prove the thesis by answering "why"?  Look at the big picture—how the essay is put together and if you've proved your point with enough examples and support. This is the most difficult and time consuming stage. People often feel frustrated and think that it will never be finished. Like many things in life—writing is never perfect or complete. Just as training in a sport or training for a job, there is always something to learn. Don't be frustrated by this step. Go through the essay, look at it from as many angles as you can, and repeat the steps as needed until either time runs out or you're satisfied! An old adage that many writers adopt is "Writing is never finished; it's just due!"

The Writing Process (Continued)

Editing and Proofreading

paste_image7.jpg Stephen King calls this part of writing "Open Door Writing" because this is the time when you need to worry what your audience thinks. This is the writing stage that many young writers skip.  They think that if they've spent hours revising, then it's already edited and proofread. This is not always the case. Many professional writers have editors to do this for them; however, you do not have this luxury—you have to do it yourself. What's worse is that you're also graded on it! It hardly seems fair, but that's life. In writing, we all must learn how to make our sentences more understandable and readable in addition to looking out for the correct punctuation and verb tense. You may be good at putting an essay together and having a logical argument, which is part of writing; however, if your reader cannot understand your sentences, then that wonderful organization will not make much of a difference.

In this step, worry about grammar, comma rules, using the correct word, etc. When I edit (for myself and for others), I generally make a list of things to look for (e.g. commas, using "you" or other second person pronouns, proper citation), and then I read the essay for each item, checking that item off as I correct it for those things. This means I read the piece several times, and you should too. To save time, people generally try to worry about this in the first stage, but it can get in the way and interfere with your ideas. Save this step for last!  But remember, last does not mean least!  Save time for this step!

 

 

Organizing the Essay

Outline 

There are two types of writers in this world -- those who write an outline in order to write a paper and those who write a paper and then an outline if one is required.  You will learn quickly which kind of writer you are, and rest assured, neither type is more successful.  For this class, you will submit an outline before writing each paper, but that outline will be at the level of the topic sentence (see information on body paragraphs), so both types of writers will find this "do-able."  In order to create this outline, you must use your thesis statement and plan of development (a.k.a. essay map). 

 

Organizing is not the first step in writing. First, you have to know what you want to write, and that is the purpose of the pre-writing and drafting part of the writing process. Writing will be easier if you don't skip the pre-writing and drafting steps.

This is the basic outlining format. For this example essay, the thesis statement reads,  "In order for a student to be successful in an on-line course, the student must be disciplined (A), self-motivated (B), and capable of learning through reading (C)."  The ensuing draft outline would look something like this: 

I. Method of Introduction: Anecdote about my first online class.

Thesis: In order for a student to be successful in an on-line course, the student must be disciplined, self-motivated, and capable of learning through reading. 

II. Discipline is essential for a student to be successful in an on-line class.

A. Example 1 (list these examples by specifics you will use)

B. Example 2

C. Example 3

III. A self-motivated student will be successful in an on-line class.

A. Example 1

B. Example 2

C. Example 3

IV. It is essential in an on-line class for students to be able to learn through reading.

A. Example 1

B. Example 2

C. Example 3

V. Conclusion: parallel thesis statement & concluding thought.

This is the most basic outline format.  Keep in mind that as your papers get longer and the topics more complicated, this format will expand.

 

Writing a Thesis

Claim A thesis statement, or claim, is a statement of opinion that forecasts the essay' s subject and lets the reader know the author's exact opinion. Professional writers do not always have a direct thesis statement, but they usually do have a "stance," or opinion. In academic writing, a direct thesis statement is necessary and expected.

A thesis is not:

The thesis statement is followed by an essay map (a.k.a. "blueprint") and appears at the end of the introductory paragraph (keep in mind that introductory paragraphs can be more than one paragraph, especially in longer essays). 

The essay map details three reasons that support your thesis. The next few pages present an equation to help you write thesis statements and essay maps. It is not the only way to write an effective thesis, but it works every single time. Keep in mind, that just like a math equation, this thesis equation can be manipulated as long as all its parts are present.

The image to the right, from educause.org, demonstrates scientific reasoning. The essay follows logical thought and is rooted in science; therefore, this what we're looking for in an essay. I encourage you to read the explanation and watch the video lecture from MIT's Kerry Emmanuel.

The following pages break down the thesis statement into its basic parts.

STEP 1: A Basic Thesis Statement without an essay map

TOPIC + VERB + PRECISE OPINION

Topic Highly competitive team sports

This is your idea, usually expressed in one word or one short phrase. Make sure your idea is a limited subject.

Verb

can be

This is usually some form of the verb to be: am, is, are, was, were. Action verbs will work as well.

Precise Opinion

psychologically damaging to young children.

Your clearly stated opinion; omit all 1st person references from your opinion as they are unnecessary. For example, you need not write "I think" or "I feel." Since this is your essay, the reader will assume that the information presented is what you think or feel.

Eliminating 1st person pronouns also decreases the likelihood that you will write an announcement.

Examples

1. Highly competitive team sports (Topic) can be (Verb) psychologically damaging to young children (Precise Opinion).

2. Children (Topic) often do (Verb) humorous things (Precise Opinion).

3. Heavy rush hour traffic (Topic) brings out (Verb) the worst in many drivers (Precise Opinion).

See the next page for Step 2.

STEP 2: A Thesis Statement with an essay map

After you write your thesis, ask yourself a thesis question such as "why" or "what" or "how." You must be able to generate three answers to this question in order to develop the essay map and the body of the paper. In fact, those three answers become the topic sentences for your body paragraphs.

The essay map sets up the body paragraphs in the same order in which they appear in the paper.  Each A, B, and C idea becomes its own topic sentence for the body paragraphs.

  

TOPIC + VERB + PRECISE OPINION + because of A, B, and C.

or

Because of A, B, and C, TOPIC + VERB + PRECISE OPINION.

 

Topic

This is your idea, usually expressed in one word or one short phrase. Make sure your idea is a limited subject.

Verb

This is usually some form of the verb to be: am, is, are, was, were. Action verbs will work as well.

Precise Opinion

Your clearly stated opinion; omit all 1st person references from your opinion as they are unnecessary. For example, you need not write "I think" or "I feel." As this is your essay, the reader will assume that the information presented is what you think or feel. Eliminating 1st person pronouns also decreases the likelihood that you will write an announcement.

Because of

This word introduces your three reasons: A, B, and C. You may also use words like with, by, through, or when.

A, B, and C

The three reasons that demonstrate why the opinion is true...or three reasons that support the opinion.

Grammar Point: Creating an essay map is a wonderful way to organize the essay and help your reader follow your points; however, they can be confusing when the sentence doesn't follow parallel structure. Follow this link for an explanation about parallel structure: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/01/. 

Proceed to the next page for examples.

Examples of Thesis + Essay Map

  1. Smoking in public places should be banned because it is dangerous (A), irritating to others (B), and harmful to the non-smoker (C).

  2. Taking an online course can be difficult for students because it requires self-discipline (A), attention to detail (B), and a visual learning style (C).

  3. Going to college can be daunting because of time limitations (A), money problems (B), and distractions (C).


These examples show the essay map attached to the thesis statement as one sentence. This is the most common and simplest of essay maps. With thesis statements that are more complicated, it might be necessary to have the essay map as either one or multiple separate sentences. Regardless of how you form your essay map, many instructors expect the essay map after the thesis.

* While there is some flexibility about where the thesis is placed, for this course place it at the end of the introductory paragraph and include an essay map.

Now practice what you have learned in the following pages.

Example 1

Keep in mind that an essay map works like a road map--it helps direct the reader in the right direction, and your message becomes clearer and more effective.

Thesis: Highly competitive team sports can be psychologically damaging to young children.

Question: How are team sports psychologically damaging?

A. They can damage a child's view of himself.

B. They can damage a child's view of his peers.

C. They can damage a child's view of adults.

The thesis with the essay map becomes:

(Pass your mouse over the link for the answer.)

Example 2

Thesis: Heavy rush hour traffic brings out the worst in many drivers.

What question would you ask for this thesis?

The correct question is:

What kinds of bad qualities does rush hour traffic bring out in a driver?

The answers are:

A. Some drivers become excessively nervous.

B. Some drivers become quite rude and impatient.

C. Other drivers exhibit dangerous aggressive qualities.

 

What would be the thesis, then?

The thesis would become:

(Pass your mouse over the link for the answer.)

Example 3

Thesis: At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution.

Question: How can the government help limit pollution?

A. The government could provide businesses incentives to upgrade to clean technologies.

B. The government could research renewable energy sources.

C. The government could plant more trees

Can you guess what the thesis would be with the attached essay map?

 

The thesis would become:

(Pass your mouse over the link for the answer.)

Writing the Body Paragraph 

The evidence or support for the thesis statement comes in the body paragraphs. The essay map sets up the topics covered in the body paragraphs, and the body paragraphs are where you convince your audience that the thesis is valid. There are a variety of ways to organize a body paragraph; however, the typical academic essay is most effective if it follows the following pattern:

 

1) Topic Sentence - This topic sentence serves as a control rod for the paragraph. You must cover the material presented by your topic sentence, but you may not cover material that is not listed in your topic sentence. Additionally, your topic sentence should include a key word or phrase from the corresponding idea in your plan of development. Do not use an implied topic sentence. Effective academic essays typically have the topic sentences at the beginning of the body paragraph.

        2)  Subtopic #1 supports the topic sentence

                3)  supporting detail with specific examples

                4)  supporting detail with specific examples

        5)  Subtopic #2 supports the topic sentence

                6)  supporting detail with specific examples

                7)  supporting detail with specific examples

        8)  Subtopic #3 supports the topic sentence

                9)  supporting detail with specific examples

                10) supporting detail with specific examples

11)  Concluding Sentence - The concluding sentence should sum up the content of the body paragraph and bridge one body paragraph to the next.  **Topic sentences can be used to bridge the two paragraphs by including transitions.

Note:  Each point in the essay map should have its own body paragraph. Therefore, if there are three points in the essay map, there will be three body paragraphs. If there are two points, then there are two body paragraphs, and so forth. This also means that paragraphs can get rather long. If the paragraphs are uncomfortably long, then you can break them up, but you must use transitions and create another topic sentence that shows the reader that the point is still continuing. As essays get more complicated, this pattern can be altered. Keep in mind that you should learn the rules before you learn how to break them.

Building a Strong Paragraph (Video)

If the widget below does not work, follow this link: http://youtu.be/oYpa9Z_4KcI

Writing the Introduction and Conclusion

paste_image9.png The introductory and concluding paragraphs are often the most difficult to write. A writer needs to know what they're going to say before writing an introduction. Often students sit at the computer with a blank page and try to think of an exciting first sentence and a lead-in for their topic (they way they learned to start an essay). How can this happen if you're not even sure of the thesis statement? Or the direction of the essay? Therefore, just start writing. You can come back to the introduction and conclusion when the rest of the essay is written. When you're ready to write those paragraphs, then follow these tips.

 

Activities

Try these activities to help reinforce the ideas learned in this module.

Point of View Pronouns

Place the appropriate pronoun under the correct label (1st Person, 2nd Person, 3rd Person).

  

Paragraph Structure

Label the appropriate parts of this paragraph following the outline of a paragraph.